In most countries of the world, the “information revolution” has altered many aspects of life significantly: commerce, employment, medicine, security, transportation, entertainment, and so on. Consequently, information and communication technology (ICT) has affected — in both good ways and bad ways — community life, family life, human relationships, education, careers, freedom, and democracy (to name just a few examples). “Computer and information ethics”, in the broadest sense of this phrase, can be understood as that branch of applied ethics which studies and analyzes such social and ethical impacts of ICT. The present essay concerns this broad new field of applied ethics.
The more specific term “computer ethics” has been used to refer to applications by professional philosophers of traditional Western theories like utilitarianism, Kantianism, or virtue ethics, to ethical cases that significantly involve computers and computer networks. “Computer ethics” also has been used to refer to a kind of professional ethics in which computer professionals apply codes of ethics and standards of good practice within their profession. In addition, other more specific names, like “cyberethics” and “Internet ethics”, have been used to refer to aspects of computer ethics associated with the Internet.
During the past several decades, the robust and rapidly growing field of computer and information ethics has generated new university courses, research professorships, research centers, conferences, workshops, professional organizations, curriculum materials, books and journals.
Ethics in Information Technology
Computers and information systems are used everywhere in society. New technologies are invaluable tools but they may have serious ethical consequences. The way an information technology tool affects sensitive issues has a direct impact on its effectiveness and usability. It may be difficult for users and stakeholders to adopt a computer system if they feel that its use violates important values and interests. To take advantage of a computer tool may not be easy in situations dominated by ethical conflicts. There is a great risk that expensive but necessary computer systems are abandoned because of scandals and conflicts. There is also a risk that ethically controversial systems are used suboptimally, that persons may get hurt, and that organizations may be damaged if they hesitate to use otherwise importand and necessary computer tools.
Ethics in IT aims at the construction of tools that can be applied in systems development and use for the consideration of significant ethical aspects. The application of suitable ethical tools is a prerequisite to consider significant aspects in all phases of computer systems development, implementation and use. Ethical tools are necessary not only to construct a system that avoids conflicts with significant moral principles but mainly to build a successful system that will play a significant role in satisfying the most important values of users and stakeholders.
IT Ethics in the Internet Age
Issues of IT Ethics have recently become immensely more complex. The capacity to place material on the World Wide Web has been acquired by a very large number of people. As evolving software has gently hidden the complexities and frustrations that were involved in writing HTML, more and more web sites are being created by people with a relatively modest amount of computer literacy. At the same time, once the initial reluctance to use the Internet and the World Wide Web for commercial purposes had been overcome, sites devoted to doing business on the Internet mushroomed and e-commerce became a term permanently to be considered part of common usage.
The assimilation of new technology is almost never smooth. As the Internet begins to grow out of its abbreviated infancy, a multitude of new issues surface continually, and a large proportion of these issues remain unresolved. Many of these issues contain a strong ethics content. As the ability to reach millions of people instantly and simultaneously has passed into the hands of the average person, the rapid emergence of thorny ethical issues is likely to continue unabated.
The area of Information Systems (IS) ethics has received, deservedly, a fair amount of attention in recent times. IS Professionals generally agree that we need adequate ground rules to govern the use of present day Information Technology (IT). We have also recognized for many years the need to incorporate ethics into IS curricula. Current mechanisms which attempt to make IS professionals and students more sensitive to the ethical concerns within IT and IS may, however, be too tightly focused in terms of both issues and audience, especially in the light of the rapid proliferation of Internet use.
The People
Solomon and O'Brien found that software piracy didn't seem to be much of a problem until microcomputers made their first major corporate and home appearance about 20 years ago. Rapid proliferation of inexpensive technology certainly does provide an ample arena for an increase in the unethical use of this technology. Today, the pervasiveness of microcomputer and technology use is not limited solely to IS professionals and students. As early as 1984, in his testimony before the US Congress, computer security expert Robert Campbell accused the computer industry of failing to develop the necessary ethical framework for IT use. He went on to say that the technology had already breached the boundaries of the professional arena and proliferated into the public domain. Today, technology use spans the widest possible range of activities and often begins at home at an early age. The Internet promises to push this trend forward at a rapid pace. In spite of this growth in use, many people who use technology at home and at work still find it to be a new and rapidly changing phenomenon. As a result, for many users of IT today, just learning how to use this volatile technology is the most important, and often the only, consideration; ethics and other related concerns are relegated to the distant background.
In her study of IS ethics attitudes, Kievet examined the differences between IS majors and non-majors in responses to a number of computer ethics related scenarios. She observed significantly different responses in four of the seven scenarios tested. This could very well mean that the need for computer ethics education is greater outside the IS related fields than within them. Small businesses that have acquired computers within the last two decades may possess only a few microcomputers. In many of these businesses, the responsibility for buying and managing microcomputers often rests upon a person with no formal education in IS. Furthermore, this purchasing and supervisory role may form only a small part of their day to day duties. Although most people in this situation will be aware of piracy laws, exposure to the broader ethical issues of IT use is likely to be limited.It is obvious that the number of people who use IT on a day to day basis, at home and at work, is growing explosively, especially as the penetration of the Internet increases. The target audience for discussions of ethical issues is certainly larger than we may have previously imagined. This expanded audience is also more difficult to reach since many of its members may never be exposed to a college level IS class. There is a very real possibility that unless appropriate steps are taken, many of these people may never receive the kind of exposure to the ethical concerns that should go hand in hand with the responsible use of computers and technology.
Issues and Concerns
In everyday life, "Ethics is the practice of making a principle-based choice between competing alternatives". The issues in IS ethics would certainly fit comfortably within this larger umbrella. We ought to be able to assume that to use IT ethically, a person would first need to possess appropriate ethical standards for day to day living. It comes as a surprise, therefore, that, that many people who consider themselves ethical have less stringent standards when it comes to using computers and related technology.Many people feel that using a computer to do something that is illegal or unethical is somehow not as "wrong" as other "real" criminal or unethical acts. For others, the term "IS ethics" refers just to issues of software piracy and unauthorized access to computer systems. Neither perception is correct. Criminal or unethical acts performed with the help of a computer are just as criminal or unethical. They usually just take less time or are harder to trace. Ethical concerns in IT actually encompass much more than just software piracy and computer hacking.
The rapid growth of Internet access and use seems to have made many of these issues more significant and pervasive. This growth has also spawned a host of new issues. Issues involving intellectual property rights, ownership of data, copyright laws and violations, and plagiarism now affect millions of people rather than just a few. From perhaps an opposing standpoint come the issues of free speech and censorship. It is obvious that the issues that are usually lumped together under the common area of "IS ethics" are in reality many and diverse. They extend far beyond the bounds of just criminal behavior. Perhaps more importantly, IS ethics issues affect a wide variety of people. Most people today are touched by IT in some way or another. To deal with the growing problem of unethical use of IT, we need a widespread awareness of the depth and breadth of these issues.
Ordinary ethical dilemmas involve a wide variety of circumstances and situations, and the involvement of computers in day to day human activity is becoming increasingly commonplace. It follows that the issues of computer ethics are likely to be as diverse as those of ordinary human activity and will be encountered as frequently. They will just be more difficult to recognize because many of the situations may be new or unfamiliar.There are many reasons for this difficulty. Many people actually do find it difficult to perceive ethical issues in their use of IT. For instance, people who wouldn't dream of reading someone else's mail browse through others' computer files with little or no feeling of guilt. Many of the hackers that break into someone else's computer systems would perhaps never consider breaking into someone else's home. Others copy software with aplomb, but are horrified when it is suggested that they are stealing. Often, people who misuse computers and technology don't really feel that they are doing anything wrong because there isn't an easily identifiable victim. Another factor that makes it difficult to pin down the issues involved in computer ethics is the newness of the technology. Some criminal and unethical practices involving computers would either never have occurred or would have been very rare without the recent massive proliferation of inexpensive computing
power. Many radically new opportunities for crime would be impossible without computers. It is, after all, difficult to rob a train had trains not been invented. It is likely that software piracy would not have reached current epidemic proportions if microcomputers had not multiplied so rapidly. Hackers' bulletin boards would probably be rare. Computer viruses wouldn't cause such widespread consternation. The potential for IT misuse would be limited to far fewer users of this technology. Most of these users would be IS professionals with a greater awareness of the ethical issues involved. The novelty of the technology also often creates situations with ethical implications that have no precedent. Obviously, people or organizations have no previously developed mechanisms to help them deal with these new situations, and previously established codes, policies and procedures may have gaps in them that prevent them from pointing out the ethically correct way.
There is reason to believe that the ethical management of IT poses some special difficulties as well. For instance, information created and stored using IT is more easily altered, destroyed or accessed without authority or permission. Privacy, un-authorized access, and the theft of information become increasingly relevant concerns. Also, the use of computers and technologically advanced communications equipment changes the way people communicate with each other. Personal, face to face contact is reduced, decisions are made more quickly and less thoughtfully, and the potential for unethical use is increased simply because not enough time is devoted to careful consideration of all the ramifications of a particular act. Information sharing often conflicts with concerns of confidentiality and privacy, and the lack of access security can often make unethical use far too easy. A natural tendency to depersonalize complex systems, remote and impersonal computer access, and an increasingly less stringent notion of corporate morality make it easier for some to rationalize their unethical behavior. The interaction of people with this new technology can create problems too. Because the tremendous growth in computing power has been coupled with a similar decline in costs, many more people today have ready access to enormous quantities of information and the inexpensive means to manipulate it. Even a decade ago, the situation was dramatically different and far less hazardous. The potential for unethical computer use has increased along with this growth in accessibility.
The Internet has probably had the greatest impact in the areas listed immediately above. As previously mentioned, the capacity to place material on the World Wide Web has rather suddenly been acquired by a very large number of people. Rapidly evolving software has gently hidden the complexities and frustrations that had been involved in writing HTML in its raw and nasty form. As an inevitable result, an increasingly large number of web sites are being created by people with a relatively modest amount of computer literacy, and who often have no ethical concerns whatsoever regarding the use of the technology.Simultaneously, once the initial reluctance to use the Internet and the World Wide Web for commercial purposes had been overcome, sites devoted to doing business on the Internet mushroomed and e-commerce became a term that is now definitely part of common usage. Following closely behind the commercial sites were sites dedicated to informing the whole or part of the public about a variety of matters, not all of which were particularly appetizing. Consider, as an example, the web site maintained by one of the teenaged killers responsible for the April 1999 shootings at Columbine High School in Denver, Colorado.The assimilation of a new and sometimes revolutionary technology is almost never entirely smooth sailing. The employment of the Internet and the World Wide Web for the many and diverse purposes that they are used for today is certainly no exception. As the technology begins to grow out of its infancy, a multitude of new issues surface continually, and a large proportion of these issues remain unresolved. Many of these issues contain a strong ethics content. As the ability to reach millions of people instantly and simultaneously has passed into the hands of the average person, the rapid emergence of thorny ethical issues is likely to continue unabated.
There is little argument regarding the power of the Internet to inform. As a media, it has far more potential than radio or television ever did, and both of those have permanently changed the world we live in, although not always for the better. One enormous difference between traditional mass media (radio, television, print) and the new media of the Internet is accessibility. The former were domains of the well heeled:a relatively small number of people controlled radio, television, or the print media. On the other hand, almost anyone can place something on the Internet. As the use of web technology accelerates, and I have little doubt that it will, we need a greater awareness of the ethical issues and problems involved in the use of this tremendously powerful media tool.
Finally, to further confuse the situation, IS professionals often find it difficult to agree on what is ethical use of IT and what is not. As a result, many of the legal and ethical issues regarding the use of IT still remain cloudy. Although many countries now have laws to deal with the possible criminal use of IT, almost every new case brings to light ethical and legal aspects that have not previously been encountered or examined. Many of these situations find IS professionals confused about the issues and at odds with others in their profession . These factors all contribute toward making it difficult, to say the least, to develop a clear and concise definition of what constitutes ethical use of IT. Implementation of ethical codes is only really possible if we can clearly define the territory that these codes should cover. We now know that a list of relevant concerns will not be short or simple. Neither will it be complete. As IT becomes increasingly more complex and widespread, we can expect ethical concerns to keep pace.
Current Attitudes, Perceptions, and Behavior
Unethical and often illegal behavior in the use of IT seems to be commonplace. Software piracy and unauthorized access to computing facilities are illegal acts in most countries. Yet, many users of IT violate these laws with little or no concern. If so many people are willing to act in ways that are patently unethical, what kind of attitude might we expect when the issues are a little more blurred?
Today, the Software Publishers Association (SPA estimates that as much as 20% of all personal computer programs in use are illegal copies. With estimates of software sales today in the neighborhood of US$50 billion to US$60 billion, that could represent as much as US$12 billion each year. The SPA also contends that a large number of organizations buy only one copy of a piece of software that they intend to use, and then load it on as many computers as they own. The SPA has brought suit against several companies and at least one university because of this practice.Many writers in the area of computer ethics paint an equally disturbing picture of current day business and computer ethics. Bloombecker finds reasons for despair, although he also finds reasons for hope. His contention, however, that software piracy and hacking remain largely offenses of the young may be too sanguine. Stark suggests that part of the problem of business ethics as a whole may exist because of the gap between "academic" business ethics and professional management. Machan agrees, pointing out that many classroom approaches to business ethics are little more than sessions of 'business bashing'.Other writing and studies that focus more specifically on computer ethics show that the present situation is disappointing. In her study of software copying policies, Athey found a dismally poor attitude towards software copying at universities. She also discovered that university faculty were some of the worst offenders in this regard. Im and Van Epps found that respondents in 75% of the 241 business schools that they surveyed agreed that software piracy occurred at their schools. A study of college students showed that a significant proportion believed it was acceptable to pirate software. This was reinforced by a study carried out by Reid, Thompson, and Logsdon, who found that software piracy was a significant problem among microcomputer users in general, but especially among university students. A similar study of university faculty concluded that an intensive program is necessary to educate both students and faculty about copyright law. Peace reached similar conclusions for professionals that use computers.
The results of the many studies that have researched attitudes and perceptions regarding computer ethics show no reason for complacency. Perceptions of what is ethical and what is not vary widely. University students and faculty appear to have regrettably lax ethical standards when it comes to using computers. This bodes ill for the future, especially as Internet use becomes increasingly more prevalent. The arena, and therefore the potential for unethical IT use just keeps increasing. Even more disconcerting is the fact that although studies indicate that people seem to have a grasp of what constitutes unethical use of IT, their actual behavior often seems to ignore these very same ethical standards that they claim to possess.
Information Technology and Codes of Ethical Behavior
The growth in technology, its complexity and its use, including access to the Internet, has been un-precedented. Ethical codes developed even a decade ago can't possibly address the bewildering range of possible situations involving ethical conflict. Because technology use is so pervasive, the majority of the people who should be targeted by these codes of conduct do not belong to the professional organizations that developed them. In fact, many IT professionals do not belong to any professional organizations. As a result, much of the audience remains untouched. Third, different organizations for IT professionals have different codes and guidelines. Although most have similar objectives, the treatment of these objectives differs from one organization to the next. Even if an IT professional were to belong to a particular organization, the standards by which he or she would be expected to live and work by would be different from those adhered to by a member of a different organization. There is no single set of widely accepted codes and guidelines for ethical decision making. Finally, a code of ethical standards is not the law although most codes of ethics do incorporate sanctions to deal with misconduct. Although legislation to deal with a variety of computer and technology related crimes has been enacted, statutes fall far short addressing potential wrongdoing.
In a call for a unified ethics code for IT professionals, Oz examined the differences between the ethical codes of 5 organizations for IS professionals. The study found similarities as well as differences between these codes when examined in a framework of obligations to society, employers, clients, colleagues, the professional organization and the profession. One flaw in all 5 sets of standards was a lack of guidelines for prioritizing ethical conflicts. A unified code, the study concluded, would better serve IT professionals and would enhance public perception of the profession.
The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) is the oldest professional organization for IT Professionals. It is also the largest. Recently, responding to the dramatically different computing environment of the present time, ACM members voted to adopt a revised code of ethics and professional conduct. The code consists of 24 imperatives, organized under the four broader headings of general moral imperatives, more specific professional responsibilities, organizational leadership imperatives, and compliance. A set of guidelines supplements this code and is intended to assist ACM members in dealing with the ethical issues addressed by the code itself. Anderson et al tested this revised code of ethics on several scenarios that involved ethical decision points. The cases were intended to illustrate both the broad range of issues that may be encountered as well as how one may use the code to deal with them. In their conclusions, the authors suggested that several ethical topics were either not addressed by the guidelines or were dealt with in insufficient detail. They further concluded that because of the diversity and complexity of present day issues as well the potential for new issues continually coming to light, the guidelines would need to be updated on an ongoing basis.
IT Ethics in the Internet Age
Issues of IT Ethics have recently become immensely more complex. The capacity to place material on the World Wide Web has been acquired by a very large number of people. As evolving software has gently hidden the complexities and frustrations that were involved in writing HTML, more and more web sites are being created by people with a relatively modest amount of computer literacy. At the same time, once the initial reluctance to use the Internet and the World Wide Web for commercial purposes had been overcome, sites devoted to doing business on the Internet mushroomed and e-commerce became a term permanently to be considered part of common usage.
The assimilation of new technology is almost never smooth. As the Internet begins to grow out of its abbreviated infancy, a multitude of new issues surface continually, and a large proportion of these issues remain unresolved. Many of these issues contain a strong ethics content. As the ability to reach millions of people instantly and simultaneously has passed into the hands of the average person, the rapid emergence of thorny ethical issues is likely to continue unabated.
The area of Information Systems (IS) ethics has received, deservedly, a fair amount of attention in recent times. IS Professionals generally agree that we need adequate ground rules to govern the use of present day Information Technology (IT). We have also recognized for many years the need to incorporate ethics into IS curricula. Current mechanisms which attempt to make IS professionals and students more sensitive to the ethical concerns within IT and IS may, however, be too tightly focused in terms of both issues and audience, especially in the light of the rapid proliferation of Internet use.
The People
Solomon and O'Brien found that software piracy didn't seem to be much of a problem until microcomputers made their first major corporate and home appearance about 20 years ago. Rapid proliferation of inexpensive technology certainly does provide an ample arena for an increase in the unethical use of this technology. Today, the pervasiveness of microcomputer and technology use is not limited solely to IS professionals and students. As early as 1984, in his testimony before the US Congress, computer security expert Robert Campbell accused the computer industry of failing to develop the necessary ethical framework for IT use. He went on to say that the technology had already breached the boundaries of the professional arena and proliferated into the public domain. Today, technology use spans the widest possible range of activities and often begins at home at an early age. The Internet promises to push this trend forward at a rapid pace. In spite of this growth in use, many people who use technology at home and at work still find it to be a new and rapidly changing phenomenon. As a result, for many users of IT today, just learning how to use this volatile technology is the most important, and often the only, consideration; ethics and other related concerns are relegated to the distant background.
In her study of IS ethics attitudes, Kievet examined the differences between IS majors and non-majors in responses to a number of computer ethics related scenarios. She observed significantly different responses in four of the seven scenarios tested. This could very well mean that the need for computer ethics education is greater outside the IS related fields than within them. Small businesses that have acquired computers within the last two decades may possess only a few microcomputers. In many of these businesses, the responsibility for buying and managing microcomputers often rests upon a person with no formal education in IS. Furthermore, this purchasing and supervisory role may form only a small part of their day to day duties. Although most people in this situation will be aware of piracy laws, exposure to the broader ethical issues of IT use is likely to be limited.It is obvious that the number of people who use IT on a day to day basis, at home and at work, is growing explosively, especially as the penetration of the Internet increases. The target audience for discussions of ethical issues is certainly larger than we may have previously imagined. This expanded audience is also more difficult to reach since many of its members may never be exposed to a college level IS class. There is a very real possibility that unless appropriate steps are taken, many of these people may never receive the kind of exposure to the ethical concerns that should go hand in hand with the responsible use of computers and technology.
Issues and Concerns
In everyday life, "Ethics is the practice of making a principle-based choice between competing alternatives". The issues in IS ethics would certainly fit comfortably within this larger umbrella. We ought to be able to assume that to use IT ethically, a person would first need to possess appropriate ethical standards for day to day living. It comes as a surprise, therefore, that, that many people who consider themselves ethical have less stringent standards when it comes to using computers and related technology.Many people feel that using a computer to do something that is illegal or unethical is somehow not as "wrong" as other "real" criminal or unethical acts. For others, the term "IS ethics" refers just to issues of software piracy and unauthorized access to computer systems. Neither perception is correct. Criminal or unethical acts performed with the help of a computer are just as criminal or unethical. They usually just take less time or are harder to trace. Ethical concerns in IT actually encompass much more than just software piracy and computer hacking.
The rapid growth of Internet access and use seems to have made many of these issues more significant and pervasive. This growth has also spawned a host of new issues. Issues involving intellectual property rights, ownership of data, copyright laws and violations, and plagiarism now affect millions of people rather than just a few. From perhaps an opposing standpoint come the issues of free speech and censorship. It is obvious that the issues that are usually lumped together under the common area of "IS ethics" are in reality many and diverse. They extend far beyond the bounds of just criminal behavior. Perhaps more importantly, IS ethics issues affect a wide variety of people. Most people today are touched by IT in some way or another. To deal with the growing problem of unethical use of IT, we need a widespread awareness of the depth and breadth of these issues.
Ordinary ethical dilemmas involve a wide variety of circumstances and situations, and the involvement of computers in day to day human activity is becoming increasingly commonplace. It follows that the issues of computer ethics are likely to be as diverse as those of ordinary human activity and will be encountered as frequently. They will just be more difficult to recognize because many of the situations may be new or unfamiliar.There are many reasons for this difficulty. Many people actually do find it difficult to perceive ethical issues in their use of IT. For instance, people who wouldn't dream of reading someone else's mail browse through others' computer files with little or no feeling of guilt. Many of the hackers that break into someone else's computer systems would perhaps never consider breaking into someone else's home. Others copy software with aplomb, but are horrified when it is suggested that they are stealing. Often, people who misuse computers and technology don't really feel that they are doing anything wrong because there isn't an easily identifiable victim. Another factor that makes it difficult to pin down the issues involved in computer ethics is the newness of the technology. Some criminal and unethical practices involving computers would either never have occurred or would have been very rare without the recent massive proliferation of inexpensive computing
power. Many radically new opportunities for crime would be impossible without computers. It is, after all, difficult to rob a train had trains not been invented. It is likely that software piracy would not have reached current epidemic proportions if microcomputers had not multiplied so rapidly. Hackers' bulletin boards would probably be rare. Computer viruses wouldn't cause such widespread consternation. The potential for IT misuse would be limited to far fewer users of this technology. Most of these users would be IS professionals with a greater awareness of the ethical issues involved. The novelty of the technology also often creates situations with ethical implications that have no precedent. Obviously, people or organizations have no previously developed mechanisms to help them deal with these new situations, and previously established codes, policies and procedures may have gaps in them that prevent them from pointing out the ethically correct way.
There is reason to believe that the ethical management of IT poses some special difficulties as well. For instance, information created and stored using IT is more easily altered, destroyed or accessed without authority or permission. Privacy, un-authorized access, and the theft of information become increasingly relevant concerns. Also, the use of computers and technologically advanced communications equipment changes the way people communicate with each other. Personal, face to face contact is reduced, decisions are made more quickly and less thoughtfully, and the potential for unethical use is increased simply because not enough time is devoted to careful consideration of all the ramifications of a particular act. Information sharing often conflicts with concerns of confidentiality and privacy, and the lack of access security can often make unethical use far too easy. A natural tendency to depersonalize complex systems, remote and impersonal computer access, and an increasingly less stringent notion of corporate morality make it easier for some to rationalize their unethical behavior. The interaction of people with this new technology can create problems too. Because the tremendous growth in computing power has been coupled with a similar decline in costs, many more people today have ready access to enormous quantities of information and the inexpensive means to manipulate it. Even a decade ago, the situation was dramatically different and far less hazardous. The potential for unethical computer use has increased along with this growth in accessibility.
The Internet has probably had the greatest impact in the areas listed immediately above. As previously mentioned, the capacity to place material on the World Wide Web has rather suddenly been acquired by a very large number of people. Rapidly evolving software has gently hidden the complexities and frustrations that had been involved in writing HTML in its raw and nasty form. As an inevitable result, an increasingly large number of web sites are being created by people with a relatively modest amount of computer literacy, and who often have no ethical concerns whatsoever regarding the use of the technology.Simultaneously, once the initial reluctance to use the Internet and the World Wide Web for commercial purposes had been overcome, sites devoted to doing business on the Internet mushroomed and e-commerce became a term that is now definitely part of common usage. Following closely behind the commercial sites were sites dedicated to informing the whole or part of the public about a variety of matters, not all of which were particularly appetizing. Consider, as an example, the web site maintained by one of the teenaged killers responsible for the April 1999 shootings at Columbine High School in Denver, Colorado.The assimilation of a new and sometimes revolutionary technology is almost never entirely smooth sailing. The employment of the Internet and the World Wide Web for the many and diverse purposes that they are used for today is certainly no exception. As the technology begins to grow out of its infancy, a multitude of new issues surface continually, and a large proportion of these issues remain unresolved. Many of these issues contain a strong ethics content. As the ability to reach millions of people instantly and simultaneously has passed into the hands of the average person, the rapid emergence of thorny ethical issues is likely to continue unabated.
There is little argument regarding the power of the Internet to inform. As a media, it has far more potential than radio or television ever did, and both of those have permanently changed the world we live in, although not always for the better. One enormous difference between traditional mass media (radio, television, print) and the new media of the Internet is accessibility. The former were domains of the well heeled:a relatively small number of people controlled radio, television, or the print media. On the other hand, almost anyone can place something on the Internet. As the use of web technology accelerates, and I have little doubt that it will, we need a greater awareness of the ethical issues and problems involved in the use of this tremendously powerful media tool.
Finally, to further confuse the situation, IS professionals often find it difficult to agree on what is ethical use of IT and what is not. As a result, many of the legal and ethical issues regarding the use of IT still remain cloudy. Although many countries now have laws to deal with the possible criminal use of IT, almost every new case brings to light ethical and legal aspects that have not previously been encountered or examined. Many of these situations find IS professionals confused about the issues and at odds with others in their profession . These factors all contribute toward making it difficult, to say the least, to develop a clear and concise definition of what constitutes ethical use of IT. Implementation of ethical codes is only really possible if we can clearly define the territory that these codes should cover. We now know that a list of relevant concerns will not be short or simple. Neither will it be complete. As IT becomes increasingly more complex and widespread, we can expect ethical concerns to keep pace.
Current Attitudes, Perceptions, and Behavior
Unethical and often illegal behavior in the use of IT seems to be commonplace. Software piracy and unauthorized access to computing facilities are illegal acts in most countries. Yet, many users of IT violate these laws with little or no concern. If so many people are willing to act in ways that are patently unethical, what kind of attitude might we expect when the issues are a little more blurred?
Today, the Software Publishers Association (SPA estimates that as much as 20% of all personal computer programs in use are illegal copies. With estimates of software sales today in the neighborhood of US$50 billion to US$60 billion, that could represent as much as US$12 billion each year. The SPA also contends that a large number of organizations buy only one copy of a piece of software that they intend to use, and then load it on as many computers as they own. The SPA has brought suit against several companies and at least one university because of this practice.Many writers in the area of computer ethics paint an equally disturbing picture of current day business and computer ethics. Bloombecker finds reasons for despair, although he also finds reasons for hope. His contention, however, that software piracy and hacking remain largely offenses of the young may be too sanguine. Stark suggests that part of the problem of business ethics as a whole may exist because of the gap between "academic" business ethics and professional management. Machan agrees, pointing out that many classroom approaches to business ethics are little more than sessions of 'business bashing'.Other writing and studies that focus more specifically on computer ethics show that the present situation is disappointing. In her study of software copying policies, Athey found a dismally poor attitude towards software copying at universities. She also discovered that university faculty were some of the worst offenders in this regard. Im and Van Epps found that respondents in 75% of the 241 business schools that they surveyed agreed that software piracy occurred at their schools. A study of college students showed that a significant proportion believed it was acceptable to pirate software. This was reinforced by a study carried out by Reid, Thompson, and Logsdon, who found that software piracy was a significant problem among microcomputer users in general, but especially among university students. A similar study of university faculty concluded that an intensive program is necessary to educate both students and faculty about copyright law. Peace reached similar conclusions for professionals that use computers.
The results of the many studies that have researched attitudes and perceptions regarding computer ethics show no reason for complacency. Perceptions of what is ethical and what is not vary widely. University students and faculty appear to have regrettably lax ethical standards when it comes to using computers. This bodes ill for the future, especially as Internet use becomes increasingly more prevalent. The arena, and therefore the potential for unethical IT use just keeps increasing. Even more disconcerting is the fact that although studies indicate that people seem to have a grasp of what constitutes unethical use of IT, their actual behavior often seems to ignore these very same ethical standards that they claim to possess.
Information Technology and Codes of Ethical Behavior
The growth in technology, its complexity and its use, including access to the Internet, has been un-precedented. Ethical codes developed even a decade ago can't possibly address the bewildering range of possible situations involving ethical conflict. Because technology use is so pervasive, the majority of the people who should be targeted by these codes of conduct do not belong to the professional organizations that developed them. In fact, many IT professionals do not belong to any professional organizations. As a result, much of the audience remains untouched. Third, different organizations for IT professionals have different codes and guidelines. Although most have similar objectives, the treatment of these objectives differs from one organization to the next. Even if an IT professional were to belong to a particular organization, the standards by which he or she would be expected to live and work by would be different from those adhered to by a member of a different organization. There is no single set of widely accepted codes and guidelines for ethical decision making. Finally, a code of ethical standards is not the law although most codes of ethics do incorporate sanctions to deal with misconduct. Although legislation to deal with a variety of computer and technology related crimes has been enacted, statutes fall far short addressing potential wrongdoing.
In a call for a unified ethics code for IT professionals, Oz examined the differences between the ethical codes of 5 organizations for IS professionals. The study found similarities as well as differences between these codes when examined in a framework of obligations to society, employers, clients, colleagues, the professional organization and the profession. One flaw in all 5 sets of standards was a lack of guidelines for prioritizing ethical conflicts. A unified code, the study concluded, would better serve IT professionals and would enhance public perception of the profession.
The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) is the oldest professional organization for IT Professionals. It is also the largest. Recently, responding to the dramatically different computing environment of the present time, ACM members voted to adopt a revised code of ethics and professional conduct. The code consists of 24 imperatives, organized under the four broader headings of general moral imperatives, more specific professional responsibilities, organizational leadership imperatives, and compliance. A set of guidelines supplements this code and is intended to assist ACM members in dealing with the ethical issues addressed by the code itself. Anderson et al tested this revised code of ethics on several scenarios that involved ethical decision points. The cases were intended to illustrate both the broad range of issues that may be encountered as well as how one may use the code to deal with them. In their conclusions, the authors suggested that several ethical topics were either not addressed by the guidelines or were dealt with in insufficient detail. They further concluded that because of the diversity and complexity of present day issues as well the potential for new issues continually coming to light, the guidelines would need to be updated on an ongoing basis.
